The law of finding is characterised by many things but simplicity is Essay

The law of finding is characterised by many things but simplicity is not one of them - Essay Example providing some basic principles and guidelines for the determination of title to the finding of lost chattels.3 Even so, any clarification offered by Parker v British Airways Board has been blurred in light of the cases that followed it.4 Hoath goes on to suggest that the catalyst for the lack of clarity in and around the law of finding disputes is largely attributable to the lack of attention and recognition to this area of law. 5 At the end of the day the age-old maxim ‘finders-keepers’ is not all that straightforward. An obvious conflict arises between he maxim ‘finder-keepers’ and the concept that an owner or occupier of land retains all rights to property which is either in or attached to the land where the object is discovered. In an early case the maxim ‘finder-keepers’ was found to be subject to any claims by the rightful owner.6 In this case, Armory v. Delamirie (1722) 1 Str. 505 the land owner made no claim to an item of jewelry found by a chimney sweeps’ boy and the ensuing dispute arose between the boy and a jeweler.7 The modern rules of ‘finders-keepers’ is largely developed around the court’s findings in the case of Elwes v Brigg Gas Co. (1886) 33 Ch.D. 562. Chitty J made it abundantly clear that in finding disputes the critical question of property entitlement was dependant upon ownership and/or lawful possession of the property where the lost object was discovered. In this case a prehistoric boat which had been buried 6 feet deep in the earth on demised premises was discovered by lessee. Chitty J maintained that the owner of the demised property was entitled to possession of the object uncovered. Chitty J held: he was in possession of the ground, not merely of the surface, but of everything that lay beneath the surface down to the centre of the earth, and consequently in possession of the boat. . . . The plaintiff then, being thus in possession of the chattel, it follows that the property in the chattel was vested in him.

Stability Analysis of DC Distribution System

Stability Analysis of DC Distribution System Stability Analysis of DC Distribution System with Constant Multiple Power Loads Ethics Declaration Checklist (to be completed by student) Does this project involve the use of: YES/NO Human participants, NO Previously collected confidential data, NO Animals for scientific purposes? NO If YES to any of the above, then the proposal will not be approved and you will not be allowed to proceed with this project. By submitting this report through the unit website for assessment, you certify that the information provided above is true and correct. Abstract In recent times dc distribution system is become a very complex which consist different types of multiple power converters. But system is suffered from stability related problem which arise due to negative incremental impedance of constant power loads. There are several methods for stability analysis of dc distribution system such as Middelbrook criterion, phase and gain margin criterion, energy source consortium criterion and the Passivity- Based stability criterion (PBSC). Furthermore, one another technique which name is Positive Feed-Forward control which is used with PBSC to improve the stability and to solve the system interaction problem. The main aim of the project is to run whole system into simulation mode in MATLAB and try to make the system stable. Introduction Now day dc distribution systems are mostly based on the power electronics Which used power converter and semiconductor devices. As a result stability and dynamic performance developed due to converter interconnection system. As we mentioned above there are most of criterion can be used only for single bus system. However, the power electronics based system consist multiple converter and multibus system so for this complex scenario the most reliable and accurate technique is the Passive Based Stability Critrion (PBSC). In this technique, stability of the any system may be derived by evaluating the system bus impedance. (Siegers, Arrua and Santi, 2017) Furthermore, in PBSC technique the system may be stable if the bus impedance of the system is analysed as a passive therefore this system also need to couple with positive feed-forward technique which is used to design stabilizing controllers that force the system bus passivity by damping impedances. The main concept of dynamic performance is based on impedance region of the system so suitable damping impedance can be developed or calculated in the system using the PFF control. Fig1.0 multi-bus system with power converters Motivation In recent time, to work with dc distribution system becomes very easier because of developed semiconductor technology and power electronics converters. In power system network generally stability of any system is very import if it is dc or ac distribution. Power quality is generally related to voltage quality of the system. At this stage, the main tendency is to change ac distribution system with high level dc distribution system. There are several technique are available for stability analysis of dc distribution system but the impedance based stability criterion such as PBSC is widely used. When any system is connected with the constant power load then it may be suffer from instability because it causes to increase the current. As a result it will definitely decrease the voltage. (Hodge Flower, 2009). In addition, PBSC is recently developed stability analysis technique which is exhibit better stability margins and establishes certain performance. Furthermore, this technique is power electronics based so it may consist of multiple power converters. There is one basic architecture model is given in fig 1.0. This technique is now applied to several networks such as automotive power system, telecommunication system, electric- ship and electric- aircraft, as well as electric and hybrid- electric vehicles. (Siegers, 2017). Moreover, firstly PBSC technique could be apply only to single bus system which consist of source and load converter. But after dynamic closed loop response of the converters is establish using standard resistively intermediate converter which is used to limit the analysis of single bus system. In general, the multi-bus power converter system has n numbers of buses and also has large number of switching converters, sources and loads. Multi-bus system is evaluated to an equivalent network (n-Port) to each bus. Mostly, passive based stability criterion is developed in frequency domain. Objectives The main objective of this project is how DC distribution system should be become stable during constant power load using PBSC technique. PBSC is one of the different techniques which can be used for both single and multiple bus system so it will be helpful to understand the switching system of converter. Need to analysis of criteria for the stability of dc distribution system. To create the circuit of dc distribution using switching converter for different block system such as open loop, feed forward input control. Create the matrix diagram and its calculation of transfer function. To run whole DC distribution model in simulation mode in MATLAB. To compare and analysis of the actual calculation and simulation result for stability. Significance The main significance of this method is that system may be stable if the network is passive. PSBC is mostly used for multi-bus system so it has n number of load converter and m number of source converter. Therefore, mainly two criteria for system stable which related to total equivalent impedance. Z(bus) has no poles on right half plane(RHP) Re{Z(bus(jw) >=0} or Z(jw) has a contour of Nyquist which is lies totally in the RHP. The main goal of the technique is to make system stable. So, positive feed- forward control (PFF) is using damping impedance in parallel with the existing impedance. The main reason of using damping impedance is to stabilize the DC bus voltage by changing the bus impedance in the frequency domain. Furthermore, there are mainly three types of parallel damping cases such as Capacitor parallel damping, R-C parallel damping and L-R-C parallel damping. Proposed Approach The project work can be divided into a number of tasks that lead to complete work sequentially and successfully for achieving the main objective. There are mainly four task that need to be done such as research or understand the DC system, Principle of PBSC technique and how it is different from the other stability technique, matrix analysis and mathematical approach and finally to establish dc distribution model in simulation mode in MATLAB. In the first task, it is necessary to understand the basic principle of dc system such as how dc system works and why dc system becomes unstable in certain condition. Furthermore, PBSC is the main part of this project so it is necessary to understand other stable system first then how PBSC can be different technique than other for example; these only one system which can be used for multi-bus system. In addition, the main role is that it works with switching converter because dc system can work only in resistive part but due to switching approach in time domain analysis it can work with inductive and capacitive part. The third part is to establish mathematical model or calculation of any system by using matrix formation. It will give the actual value of impedance for stability of system because whole method is depends on impedance of the system. Finally, the last part of this project is very important. It is necessary to understand the MATLAB software and then apply simulation mode for DC grid system. Timeline One grant chart is given in the appendix which shows the whole timeline of the project. In the first semester, project is divided into 13 weeks excluding holidays and exams. The description and time is also given in the grant chart. Furthermore, for semester 2 dates and description is not fixed but given approximate nearly. During the project, it may come some error and difficulties then some changes will occur. Each task is given sequentially and it may help to complete the whole task in given period. Risk Assessment There is another attachment is given in appendix which shows the risk of the project. In general, the risk of the project is very low because mostly work in simulation mode not in the real world. There are several factors which can be affecting on the project such as supervisor, health, personal, software, equipment and computer. All factors are defined by code which is given below. SUP- Supervisor Per- Personal HLTH- health EQU- equipment CMP- computer SFT- software As mentioned above the overall risk of this project is low. Some risk factors are near to zero such as supervisor, personal. The health risk also low but sometimes it is dangerous for eyes due to sitting in front of computer but it can be overcome wearing the glasses. Instrument risk sometimes high because of awareness of using but it can solve by taking care properly. Computer data risk is very low and it can be overcome by back up data in USB. Software risk can be moderate. Progress to Date The current level of the project work is at initial stage. Firstly I try to understand the how DC system is different than AC system. Furthermore, Try to find research paper related to the project work. Research is started on PBSC (Passive based stability criterion) technique and its main principal of this technique. Try to understand that why PBSC is used for stability analysis rather than another method. I am trying to understand matrix equation of stability criterion. In addition, in the last session I understand how DC system works with capacitor and inductor. Also I get broad knowledge about using capacitor in parallel with any circuit. In further session we will learn whole system and after we will learn the MATLAB software for future simulation. Conclusion After completing all task of this report, the stability of dc distribution system is quit complex but it is very useful for high voltage distribution system. It is very reliable and easier than AC system. The PBSC technique is also better than other technique because multi- bus system stability developed. Also PBSC is also analysis the passivity for individual bus system within MVDC system present. This technique is also validated or applies for both simulation and experimental model of four converter system. Also PBSC can reduce design and sensitivity to component. There are some benefits of this system such as reduce power dissipation, large currents, weight and cost. References [1] Barkley, A., Santi, E. (2009). Improved online identification of a DC-DC converter and its control loop gain using cross-correlation methods. IEEE Transactions on power electronics, 24(8), 2021-2031. [2] Barkley, A., Dougal, R., Santi, E. (2011, March). Adaptive control of power converters using Digital Network Analyzer Techniques. In Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2011 Twenty-Sixth Annual IEEE (pp. 1824-1832). IEEE. [3] Bottrell, N., Prodanovic, M., Green, T. C. (2013). Dynamic stability of a microgrid with an active load. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 28(11), 5107-5119. [4] Cho, H. Y., Santi, E. (2008, November). Modeling and stability analysis in multi-converter systems including positive feedforward control. In Industrial Electronics, 2008. IECON 2008. 34th Annual Conference of IEEE (pp. 839-844). IEEE. [5] Cvetkovic, I., Boroyevich, D., Mattavelli, P., Lee, F. C., Dong, D. (2013). Unterminated small-signal behavioral model of DC-DC converters. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 28(4), 1870-1879. [6] Lin, R. L., Yeh, P. Y., Liu, C. H. (2012). Positive feed-forward control scheme for distributed power conversion system with multiple voltage sources. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 27(7), 3186-3194. [7] Lin, R. L., Liu, W. S., Chen, J. F., Chen, M. H., Liu, C. H. (2013). Positive feedforward control for multimodule output-series power-conversion systems with individual nonideal sources. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 60(4), 1323-1334. [8] Riccobono, A. (2013). Stabilizing Controller Design for a DC Power Distribution System using a Passivity-Based Stability Criterion. [9] Riccobono, A., Santi, E. (2013). Positive feedforward control of three-phase voltage source inverter for DC input bus stabilization with experimental validation. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, 49(1), 168-177. [10] Riccobono, A., Santi, E. (2012, February). A novel passivity-based stability criterion (PBSC) for switching converter DC distribution systems. In Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2012 Twenty-Seventh Annual IEEE (pp. 2560-2567). IEEE. [11] Rivetta, C., Williamson, G. A., Emadi, A. (2005, July). Constant power loads and negative impedance instability in sea and undersea vehicles: statement of the problem and comprehensive large-signal solution. In Electric Ship Technologies Symposium, 2005 IEEE (pp. 313-320). IEEE. [12] Siegers, J., Arrua, S., Santi, E. (2017). Stabilizing Controller Design for Multibus MVdc Distribution Systems Using a Passivity-Based Stability Criterion and Positive Feedforward Control. IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, 5(1), 14-27. [13] Sudhoff, S. D., Crider, J. M. (2011, April). Advancements in generalized immittance based stability analysis of DC power electronics based distribution systems. In Electric Ship Technologies Symposium (ESTS), 2011 IEEE (pp. 207-212). IEEE. [14] Sun, J. (2011). Impedance-based stability criterion for grid-connected inverters. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 26(11), 3075-3078. [15] Zadeh, M. K., Gavagsaz-Ghoachani, R., Martin, J., Pierfederici, S., Nahid-Mobarakeh, B., Molinas, M. (2014). A new discrete-time modelling of PWM converters for stability analysis of DC microgrid. Proc Electrimacs14, 1-6. [16] Zadeh, M. K., Gavagsaz-Ghoachani, R., Martin, J. P., Pierfederici, S., Nahid-Mobarakeh, B., Molinas, M. (2015, March). Discrete-time modelling, stability analysis, and active stabilization of dc distribution systems with constant power loads. In Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2015 IEEE (pp. 323-329). IEEE. [17] Zenger, K., Altowati, A., Suntio, T. (2006, November). Stability and performance analysis of regulated converter systems. In IEEE Industrial Electronics, IECON 2006-32nd Annual Conference on (pp. 1975-1980). IEEE. Attachment 1 Timeline Chart Attachment 2 Risk Assessment Matrix Risk Reference Risks Consequences CurrentRisk Treatments Current Level of Risk AdditionalRisk Treatments Residual Level of Risk Likelihood Consequence Risk Level Ranking Likelihood Consequence Risk Level Ranking SUP Not available on campus Not get enough information Contact through mail 0 0 0 L Not required 0 0 0 L HLTH-1 Health problem Delay in project Precaution needed 0 1 1 L Not required 0 0 0 L HLTH-2 Eye related problem Eye burning Very less chance 1 1 2 L Wear glasses 1 2 2 L PER-1 Family issues Not concentre on work Work management 2 2 3 M Progress work 1 2 2 M PER-2 sickness Reduce work efficiency Take rest 0 1 1 M Take medicines 0 1 2 M EQP-1 Laptop not working Lost data Backup or save file 2 2 3 L Online store cloud 0 0 1 L CMP-1 Cable not working Not charging properly Protect the cable 1 1 1 L Extra cable 0 0 1 L CMP-2 Tough screen problem Not getting data Use keyboard 0 0 1 L Not required 0 0 0 L SFT-1 Software not available Work delay Try another software 0 1 2 L Not required 0 0 0 L Activity Overall Risk Rating 0.00 LOw

Municipal Budgeting and Revenue Essay -- Budget Finance Government Ess

Municipal Budgeting and Revenue Introduction Every government entity has a primary goal, which is to be as efficient and effective as possible while expending the smallest amount of resources. In addition, the resources expended cannot be more than the resources received as revenues. The budgeting process is a tool that assists government entities in being both efficient and effective. Before a budget can be adequately prepared, you must first understand the budgeting concept and secondly be knowledgeable of budget types. Local governments use budgets for a variety of reasons, including: accountability, planning, evaluation, and information. A municipal budget is a financial map to help guide public managers and administrators of a local government in a particular direction to function successfully in getting the work of its citizenry completed. The primary purposes of the governmental budget are to legitimize public expenditures and to account for and control the usage of public resources. As budgets evolve, officials find that the annual budget should be used for planning, coordinating, and scheduling programs. Demands on municipalities force them to engage in establishing priorities and monitoring how well the priorities are achieved. It is no longer possible for a municipal government to do everything for everyone. A municipal government must prioritize the services that are mandatory, urgent, and that are done well. Resources must be aligned with strategies and citizen’s needs by allocating them over some time frame; usually twelve months – a fiscal year. The budget communicates the objectives of the municipality to all of the stakeholders. Stakeholders in a municipality include the taxpayers that primarily fu... ...delivery they will provide in the expenditure side of the budget. Bibliography Allan, Ian J., Revenue Collection Administration, A Guide for Smaller Governments. Chicago: Government Finance Officers Association, 1993. League of California Cities, California Municipal Revenue Sources Handbook. Sacramento: League of CA Cities, 1995. League of California Cities, Financing Cities. Sacramento: www.cacities.org, 2000. Lehan, Edward A., Simplified Governmental Budgeting. Chicago: Municipal Finance Officers Association of the US and Canada, 1981. MacManus, Susan A., Revenue Patterns in US Cities and Suburbs: A Comparative Analysis. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978. National League of Cities, City Fiscal Conditions in 1999. Washington D.C.: National League of Cities, 1999. Swartz, Thomas R., Urban Finance Under Siege. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1993.

Effects of corruption Essay

1. Introduction in philosophical, theological, or moral discussions, corruption is spiritual or moral impurity or deviation from an ideal. Corruption may include many activities including bribery and embezzlement. Government, or ‘political’, corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for personal gain. Corruption has been a major problem in our country Kenya, affecting individuals all over the country. Most problems facing the country can be associated with corruption, starting with unemployment; which has seen the rate of jobless Kenyans go up each and every year, tribal wars which saw the country almost to flames in the year 2007, crimes, which are as a result of the increased rate of unemployment, national debts e.g. the Anglo-leasing which has seen the government spend billions trying to repay the debt. 2. Objectives The study has two objectives; First, it aims to review the essential elements of the various approaches that have been used to analyse the causes and effects of corruption. Second, it aims to explore how research has been applied in developing countries. This is a question of what policy recommendations have been made, and what might be learned from the anti-corruption campaigns and policies applied in specific countries. 3. Research questions 1. To what extent has corruption penetrated into our society today 2. How has  corruption affected our way of lives today 3. Which population (the youth or the old) are mostly affected by corruption 4. Which characters in our society influence corruption 5. What is the major contributor to high levels of corruption in Kenya today 6. What role can the government play to bring an end or reduction to corruption 7. How can Kenyans ensure that corruption is eradicated from our system 8. What are the benefits of living in a corruption-free country 4. /Literature review Corruption has recently become a major issue in foreign aid policies. However, behind the screens it has always been there, referred to as the â€Å"c-word†. The major concern for international aid policy through the last five decades is to improve the living conditions for the poor in the poorest countries of the world. This endeavour requires a close co-operation with the national governments in poor countries. Generally speaking, however, the governments in poor countries are also the most corrupt. This is one of the few clear empirical results of recent research on corruption. The level of GDP per capita holds most of the explanatory power of the various corruption indicators. Consequently, if donors want to minimise the risk of foreign aid being contaminated by corruption, the poorest countries should be avoided. This would, however, make aid policy rather pointless. This is the basic dilemma corruption raises for aid policy. Unlike international business most development aid organisations and international finance institutions have the lion’s share of their activities located in highly corrupt countries. The international community in general and some donor countries in particular are, however, increasingly willing to fight corruption. Within the â€Å"good governance† strategies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund initiatives to curb corruption are given priority. OECD and the UNDP have also developed particular anti-corruption programmes to assist governments in tackling the problem. Furthermore, several bilateral development agencies have placed anti-corruption efforts high on their development agenda. Whether this is a desirable change in focus of aid policy, and, hence, whether it is possible to find workable policy instruments to fight corruption, remains to be explored. Corruption is a problem that mainly arises in the interaction between government and the  market economy where the government itself must be considered endogenous. Therefore it is complex to handle from a theoretical point of view. This difficulty is underlined by the fact that data are difficult to gather, and, if available, data are often â€Å"soft†, unreliable and masked. Moreover, from an aid organisation’s point of view the issue of anti-corruption may become diplomatically delicate since at least some of the 7 stakeholders who are handling the aid instruments in the partner countries, are likely to be part of the problem. 5. Research methodology The methods employed were the use of observation questionnaire and interview. Observation involved watching and listening to what people are doing in groups and also what they are watching when in cyber cafes or at home using televisions and also observing what the reaction is when the topic of corruption is introduced. The questionnaire involved a series of questions directed to parents or guardians and another directed to youths and children. They were aimed at finding out how parents and youth view the aspect of corruption The parents or guardians questionnaire consisted of sections which were; Closed ended questions (which required a YES or NO answer) Open ended questions (respondent free to answer in his/her own words) The youths and children’s questionnaire consisted of Closed ended questions (which required a YES or NO answer) The other method used was interviewing where there was a one on one with the respondent and the questions to be asked would revolve the topic of corruption that is the accessibility moral social and health effects. 6. Data collection Ideally the data applied in research on corruption should be based on direct and first-hand observations of corrupt transactions made by unbiased observers who are familiar with the rules and routines in the sector under scrutiny. More aggregate numbers should then be constructed on the basis of such observations. This kind of empirical studies hardly exist, however, and for obvious reasons we cannot expect many more in the near future. Most of  the time we are dealing with complex transactions taking place in large hierarchies to which independent researchers normally have no access, nor the appropriate social networks for picking up and checking data. The information is indirect and, until recently, rather unsystematic. One of the major difficulties in corruption research has consequently been the lack of a solid empirical basis. The observational basis of corruption research In countries with honest judiciaries, the most reliable information about corruption is court cases. Courts are spending huge resources on establishing which transactions have in fact taken place, and to judge whether they have actually been corrupt. The problem with court cases is that they are few, compared to the underlying number of corrupt acts, that they cannot be used neither as an indicator of sector occurrences nor of general frequency. For the same reasons court data are difficult to use for cross-country comparisons. They are likely to tell more about political priorities or the efficiency of judiciaries and police than about the underlying problem of corruption. Such data on corruption has nevertheless been collected on an international basis and some efforts have been made to make them comparable across countries, for instance by the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division of the United Nations Office in Vienna (United Nations 1999). However, the fact that Singapore and Hong Kong have exceptionally high conviction rates confirms the suspicion that data from courts cases on corruption, when aggregated, are telling more about judiciary efficiency than about corruption frequencies12. They do, nevertheless, bring interesting and often very detailed descriptions of the social mechanisms involved. In addition to the court cases, the police and other investigation units are producing considerable information about instances of corrupt transactions, also when the information may not be precise enough to win court cases or to fire employees. The quality of this information is highly variable, ranging from cases almost ready to bring to court, to mere rumours.13 In some cases this information may be sufficiently extensive to construct risk patterns for entire sectors, but in most cases it will be biased in the sense that active, strongly motivated police units will tend to exaggerate the number and the danger of the crooks they are  hunting. Investigative journalists are in many ways in a better position to collect data than social scientists. The public exposure of journalists gives them a larger supply of informants. They will often have to handle the data carefully, since good stories demand the naming of actors with the obvious possibility of harming innocent individuals. The risk of being sued necessitates caution. Like the police, journalists possess much surplus information that they cannot use. This means that stories from the media are important sources of information also for social science research on corruption when it comes to establishing facts14. Media are also important subjects of research on corruption, mainly for political scientists. Some forms of corruption may be considered as a kind of political scandals, and the political effects may often be quite similar to the publication of private misbehaviour of politicians or their families. Media are not only important in bringing forward facts about corruption, but also for forming public and scientific perceptions of corruption. Moreover, the media are to a large extent setting the stage for determining the likely political consequences of revealed corruption scandals. Like court decisions, media sources have their evident biases when comparing corrupt transactions across countries and across time. Firstly, the media will tend to give priority to the more spectacular stories, making the less dramatic but more common practices of corruption less attention. Secondly, and more important, the number of stories on corruption that are reaching the public are not likely to be determined only by how many stories that exist out there, but is also a question of press freedom, of the market for corruption stories, the journalistic professionalism and resources available, and various kinds of journalistic bandwagon effects. The bias created is likely to be serious also when it comes to empirical research because of the need to rely on second hand information. This makes it almost impossible to determine whether the perception of increasing corruption levels worldwide is based on facts or not, because the main sources used are likely to be strongly influenced by shifts in media attention and public opinion. As far as we know, unlike the case of criminal convictions for corruption, no international counting of media stories has been attempted. It is clear that the actual occurrences of discovered and provable corrupt acts discovered through courts, media and the few instances of participatory research are  too few in most countries to constitute a representative sample of the underlying corrupt transactions. To create patterns and analyses, researchers have to bring in information that is relatively unreliable, and then try to process it and make explicit the large and hardly determinable margins of err or in the field. Or alternatively, researchers can decide to let the uncertain and imprecise information about patterns pass, and consider it as not amenable to serious research. Until recently, the last strategy has been the dominant one, but since the mid-1990s a number of quantitative studies have been published based upon quite subjective and commercial indexes of aggregate country levels of corruption. The first and most influential one was Mauro (1995) who brought corruption into the renewed field of economic growth studies among economists. It was an econometric study of the effects of country corruption level on the growth rate, and the results indicated, as discussed in chapter 7.4, that there was indeed a significant negative impact. The study was based on data on general country corruption levels. What kind of data had Mauro been able to find? Corruption measured: The construction of corruption indicators Mauro (1995) used mainly data from a commercial organisation, Business International (BI), which in 1980 made an extensive survey of a large number of commercial and political risk factors, including corruption, for 52 countries, among these several developing countries. Business International had an international network of correspondents (journalists, country specialists, and international businesspeople) who were asked about whether and to what extent business transactions in the country in question involved corruption or questionable payments. The perceived degree of corruption involved in these transactions was ranked on a scale from 0 to 10. BI also made efforts to make the rankings across correspondents consistent. In fact, Business International was not the only organisation that tried to monitor where international businesses have to expect the most extensive or frequent bribe demands. Quite a number of both profit and non-profit organisations constructed similar indexes. Today it is Transparency International’s â€Å"Corruption Perception Index† (CPI) that is the most well known and most used both in research and in the public debate. The Corruption Perception Index (CPI) The CPI is the most comprehensive quantitative indicator of cross-country corruption available, where each single country is recognisable. It is compiled by a team of researchers at Gà ¶ttingen University, headed by Johann Lambsdorff. The CPI assesses the degree to which public officials and politicians are believed to accept bribes, take illicit payment in public procurement, embezzle public funds, and commit similar offences. The index ranks countries on a scale from 10 to zero, according to the perceived level of corruption. A score of 10 represents a reputedly totally honest country, while a zero indicates that the country is perceived as completely corrupt15. The 1999 corruption perception index includes 99 countries. It is based on 17 different polls and surveys conducted by 10 independent organisations, not by TI itself16. None of these surveys are dealing with corruption only, but they cover a number of issues of relevance for development and business confidence. TI, however, is using only the data on corruption. Hence, the Transparency International index is not based upon information from the organisation’s own experts but is constructed as a weighted average of (for 1999) 17 different indexes from 10 different organisations. The majority of these indexes are based on fairly vague and general questions about the level or frequency of corruption perceived either by experts or business managers. About half are based upon expert opinions within built checks to ensure cross-country consistency. The other half is mainly based on questionnaires sent to middle and high-level management to either international or local firms. Only one organisation (i.e., International Working Group, developing the International Crime Victim Survey) asks the respondents directly about their own experience of corruption. Thus, the CPI is mainly a â€Å"poll of polls†, reflecting the impressions of business people and risk analysts who have been surveyed in a variety of ways17. According to TI, none of these sources combines a sufficiently large sampling frame with a convincing methodology to produce reliable comparative assessments. Hence, TI has opted for a composite index as the most statistically robust means of measuring perceptions of corruption. Each of the other surveys uses different sampling frames and varying methodologies. The definition of the concept corruption also varies between the surveys. Thus, we may question whether the surveys cover the  same phenomenon (see Lambdsorff, 1999b). Furthermore, all the surveys ask for the extent the phenomenon, although the meaning of â€Å"extent† is not obvious. Is it the frequency of corrupt transactions or the amount of bribes paid or money embezzled? 7. references Hamilton , Alexander (2013), Small is beautiful, at least in high-income democracies: the distribution of policy-making responsibility, electoral accountability, and incentives for rent extraction Morris, S.D. (1991), Corruption and Politics in Contemporary Mexico. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa Senior, I. (2006), Corruption – The World’s Big C., Institute of Economic Affairs, London â€Å"Glossary†. U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre. Retrieved 26 June 2011. Lorena Alcazar, Raul Andrade (2001). Diagnosis corruption. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-1-931003-11-7 Znoj, Heinzpeter (2009). â€Å"Deep Corruption in Indonesia: Discourses, Practices, Histories†. In Monique Nuijten, Gerhard Anders. Corruption and the secret of law: a legal anthropological perspective.

The Courtesans of Bollywood

The media – whether in print, television, or the cinema – has portrayed women in all sorts of images. These images reflect how a certain society perceive women and what roles do they portray in reality. Women in Indian cinema have been variously depicted with different images which represent the division within the Indian society. Just like in any parts of the world, the classification between men and women has been distinct throughout history. Even in modern time, such classifications which further divide both sexes still exist in media because of the stereotypes that have been established.The Indian film industry, famously called as Bollywood, has effectively created films which encompassed the different faces of women in their nation. There are films that attributed them with Hindu goddesses and as well as portraying them as traditional and modern women from all division of the caste. The films that are made depicting women reflected India’s thoughts and behav ior towards sexuality and social norms. The media – despite of its tendency for exaggeration and sensationalism – draws its inspiration from real life’s circumstances, no matter how fictitious the story becomes.No matter how the characters of women are formed, their roles in the film say a lot about the current social perception of Indian Women. Two notable films in Bollywood will be the central discussion of this essay. Pakeezah (1972) and Devdas (2002) became well-known for the romantic plots amidst the struggles within social taboos combined with cinematic intensity and songs aptly made for the film. From these films, the heroines that will be given concentration belong to that level of society which is usually judged derogatively.Sahibjaan of Pakeezah and Chandramukhi from Devdas share the same profession of courtesans, and played major roles in the films showing how Indian courtesans are being personified. The discussion for the two female protagonists will revolve around their being courtesans and they symbolized India’s perception and direction of their views regarding sexuality and how their norms and social evolvement are shaped by these views. Courtesans, as seen from the films, cater to the public eye, predominantly of male audience. Their profession has been criticized by society as immoral and these women are usually isolated from the realm of an ideal woman.By exploring the two films, it will be argued how the views of courtesans are still relevant in the modern Indian society. To be able to convey the contents of the arguments for the established thesis statement, a brief background or summary of each movie will be provided. This is for the intent of giving a foundation or an origin where the standpoints will be derived. Second, there will be an attempt to categorize Indian courtesans which is distinct from courtesans of other countries. This will be connected to how the character of a courtesan became an embodiment o f India’s assumption towards sexuality.From this, Sahibjaan and Chandramukhi from the films will be subjected to analysis, comparing the differences of their roles as courtesans on the films. The essay will be concluded by gathering all the insights that have been discussed and as well as its implications on Indian society. The plot of both films is set in the conservative India where traditional elements are highly emphasized. One of the two films has been derived from a 1917 novella called Devdas. This film has many versions in different languages and the one directed by Sanjay Bhansali in 2002, is the latest and the first full colored version of the film.Devdas can be said as a classic love triangle story with the lives of the main characters closely intertwined with each other. The male protagonist Devdas came back from London to reconcile with his long-time childhood beloved Paro. The two has been arranged for marriage however, when the Paro’s maternal ancestry as dancers is revealed, her humiliated mother decided to arrange a marriage for Paro to another man. From that aspect the tragedy of the heart-broken Devdas ensues, as his college friend introduced him to the world of alcohol and carnal desires.The brothel where his friend brought him became his emotional solace or more of an emotional escapism. As Devdas began to indulge in alcoholism, he met the most famous courtesan named Chandramukhi. Her beauty and exquisite charm which made Chandramukhi as a renowned courtesan became an irresistible pull for Devdas to become close to her. On the other hand, his vulnerabilities as a man shown by his weakened state by the alcohol and the discovery of his supposed love story became the reason why Chandramukhi fell in love with him.The story takes its turn with Devdas being devoured by his alcoholic addiction and Chandramukhi’s love for him brought her to Paro to convince him to stop his self-destruction and subsequently formed a friendship w ith her. Though he did not listen, Devdas promised to see her before his death. Eventually, he confessed his love for Chandramukhi however shortly after that; he expressed his goodbye to her because of his intent to move out of the country. On his journey and with the last drink of wine, he became extremely sick. Feeling himself on the verge of death, he went to fulfill his promise to Paro to see her.Paro ran to meet him but her husband prohibited her and as Devdas dies in front of their gates, his last image is Paro trying to reach for him and screaming his name. It is a clear tragic story for the three characters as all of them are not able to achieve the happiness they wanted out of love. The dynamism of the story is presented by the diverse social upbringing of the characters. Devdas is born from the upper landowning class, while Paro came from an ordinary family whose lineage is from dancers, and Chandramukhi being a courtesan is judged by the society as immoral.The three main characters attempted to go beyond their social status as the purpose of love became their main source of strength to defy the social norms. The second film which similarly tackled defying social classifications in the name of love is, Pakeezah. Released in 1972, this film took 14 years to be completed due to personal issues between the main cast and the director. An original work of Kamal Amrohi, Pakeezah is a classic Indian courtesan movie. This film is a story about a woman who dreams of escaping a world where she felt worthless and soulless.Sahibjaan shared the same fate that her mother did, a profession which eventually led to the rejection of her father’s family. After her mother’s death, her aunt Nawabjaan adopted her and brought Sahibjaan to her brothel where she practiced dancing and singing. She became famous as a courtesan when she grew up, however, her aunt felt the need to get Sahibjaan out of the brothel when her father came searching for her. On the train ride out of the city Sahibjaan found a note that has been slipped between her toes where a stranger wrote about the beauty of her feet and not to soil it.This note became her hope to find rescue from the environment she desperately wants to escape. It also became her only evidence that this particular stranger is the only one who can love her truly and the note is her first real communication with someone who has a pure intention towards her. She was able to meet the stranger who is a forest ranger named Salim, and because of her fear that he might reject her, Sahibjaan kept her true identity. Salim brought her to his family however as men recognized Sahibjaan as the courtesan, Salim’s family disapproved.Despite of Sahibjaan’s confession about her work, Salim’s feelings did not change and both of them ran away together. He eventually decided to marry her, renaming Sahibjaan as Pakeezah meaning ‘the pure one. ’ However, her shame and fear as being a courtesan dominated her, and not wanting to ruin Salim’s reputation Sahibjaan fled from him and called off the marriage. Her decision has left Salim hurting and as a way of retaliation and coping with the pain, Salim decided to marry another woman and invited Sahibjaan for his wedding. In this part of the film, she danced on broken glasses practically symbolizing the pain that both of them share.A revelation has been made when Salim’s uncle, Shahabuddin, learns that Sahibjaan is his long-lost daughter and it resulted to a happy-ending for Sahibjaan, knowing that her father will save her from the world she wanted to get away from, and as well as a possibility for her love for Salim to be reconsidered. Just like the film Devdas, Pakeezah tells about a romantic story of a courtesan with a heart. Someone like Sahibjaan does not desire to be a courtesan forever and wanted to become a real woman by meeting her future husband and be a wife.There is also the familiar pattern of the characters disregarding their social status to be able to experience a relationship with one another. It leaves the impression of Indian movies such as these that the division of the caste system in reality is strictly followed. Pakeezah and Devdas are two classic Bollywood films which portrays the kind of women often degraded by the society. These films presented the courtesans with such humanity which goes beyond their profession of enticing and engaging their audience towards them.Courtesans can be said to have prominently existed way before the times of the monarchy. Indian courtesans are said to be â€Å"sexually liberated and educated women who dance in the temples and at public ceremonies and the only women who are allowed to learn to read, sing, and dance† (Feldman & Gordon, 2006, p. 161). Just like other courtesans in general, they are meant to entertain and offer their company to men. Their difference from prostitutes is that sexual intercourse is just one of their services. They engage in discussions, in festivals, and in the arts. Simone de Beauvoir further differentiates the two:Prostitutes need two kinds of men, client and protector. In her environment man is superior to woman, and this setting apart favors a kind of love-religion which explains the abnegation of certain prostitutes. For the courtesans, beauty and charm or sex appeal are necessary but not enough, she must be recognize as a person. Her pride, her independence, and her money mean that she will never be ‘taken’ – no man will be her absoluter master. † (cited in Kazmi, 1994, p. 237) From the two films, as courtesans their bodies became the attraction to be able to play the part.The dances and mujras by Sahibjaan and Chandramukhi are utilized to emphasize their body part and allure to entice men. As in Indian cinema, women are placed in the cast for the purpose of having something ‘pleasurable in the eyes’ on the screen. â€Å"In t heir traditional exhibitionist role, women are simultaneously looked at and displayed with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness† (Kazmi , 1994, p. 234). Since their roles are courtesans, they are always under the scrutiny of their male clients.Their publicized sexuality makes them a property of the society. However, from the films, it can be seen that the courtesans fell in love with the male protagonists both coming from noble families. This love makes them as the hero’s property, thus, losing their â€Å"generalized sexuality and showgirl connotations† and their erotic charms are for the male protagonists alone (Kazmi, 1994, p. 234). That sense of property has not been made official since Sahibjaan and Chandramukhi are not seen married under traditional ceremonies.This gives the impression that India may not view courtesans as an ideal wife, no matter how the circumstances of falling in love may occur. In Devdas, Chandramukhi is seen as a feisty woman who holds her dignity as a courtesan. Despite of the numerous males gawking at her performance and by the harsh judgments which society throws at her, she never did want to become someone else or want anything other than Devdas. She has a strong image of a courtesan portrayed in the film. Chandramukhi can be classified as the classic courtesan who has lived by her destiny to please the public, though she is condemned by it.By the time that she became too attached with Devdas, her duty of pleasing many people has been devoted to please Devdas so he could ease his sufferings. Chandramukhi’s sacrifice of letting Devdas go symbolized her gratitude for him the moment he confessed that he loves her as well. Because that love is rarely given to a courtesan like her and the fact Devdas see her as a normal woman worthy of it, she devoted her life taking care of him and letting go of him in the end even if it entails her happiness (Nair, 2002, p. 86). On the other hand, Sahibjaan is portrayed as a courtesan struggling for an escape from the world she grew up with.Unlike Chandramukhi, Sahibjaan is a courtesan who wished to change her life and get out of her profession. However, the history of her mother’s life haunts her, encapsulating her in fear that she might never achieve the normal life that she wanted. A courtesan who pleases out of duty, the film focused on making her worthy of marriage. The scene where Salim renamed her as Pakeezah provided her the status that she is still worthy of being a wife despite of being a courtesan. She can be said as someone who subsequently gives in to the cruel prejudices of society.By refusing Salim’s offer of marriage, Sahibjaan continues to be a possession of the public, denying herself the happiness that she wanted to be rescued by the one man she loves. Nonetheless, both women have exuded strength when it comes to making choices. Though the y have been portrayed as weak for love and for rescue, they have made decisions which in their knowledge can deprive them of the happiness that they want. In society, since courtesans are made to please the world, sacrificing their own personal interests is a part of their duty.Thus, their role as a public commodity strips them off the right to be part of the private sphere, which includes the family. The courtesans of Indian cinema maybe considered as the origin of independent women in Indian society. A courtesan is said to have â€Å"the courage to confront society, established morality, and the powers that be† (Kazmi, 1994, p. 231). That the courtesans in these films are the early embodiments of empowering women’s sexuality when it comes to breaking social norms, since in the conservative Indian nation courtesans or good women alike, are considered marginalized.Courtesans can be viewed as the mortal goddesses of the Indian society who can personify evil and goodness in how sexuality is perceived. References Feldman, M. , & Gordon, B. (2006). The Courtesan’s Art. New York: Oxford University Press. Kazmi, F. (1994). Muslim Socials and the Female Protagonist: Seeing a Dominant Discourse at Work. In Forging Identities: Gender, Communities, and the State, (pp. 226-243). Zoya, H. (Ed. ). New Delhi: Kali for Women. Nair, P. K. (2002). â€Å"The Devdas Syndrome in Indian Cinema. † Cinemaya 56/57, Autumn/Winter : 827.